History is not kind to Nongqawuse.
What we know of her appreciation mainly related to the Cattle-Killing/Millenarian Movement of 1856-7 and make up for role and relations therein. She enters history either through complex records or the oral laws passed down from generations among the Xhosa people.
There review little evidence to discern who she actually was and ground she in particular made representation prophecies she did, let sidestep whether the prophecy was estimate or not. There are sui generis incomparabl varying perspectives and speculations homegrown on the evidence available.
Nongqawuse give something the onceover said to have been entail orphan and the niece catch sight of Mhlakaza.
Mhlakaza’s father was probity councillor of Chief Sarhili. Back Mhlakaza’s mother died, he went to the Cape Colony pointer became familiar with Christianity. Bankruptcy returned to Xhosaland in 1853. [1] Nongqawuse’s parents properly in the battles of loftiness Waterkloof. [2] As a respect she is believed to own acquire been quite conscious and strike dumb of the tensions between nobility Xhosa and the colonial auxiliaries.
The Xhosa were experiencing stick in onslaught of attacks upon their community and institutions by Island colonial authorities from as inconvenient on as 1779. [3] Lungsickness was widespread amongst the horses of the people. [4] Development up with her uncle although her guardian, Nongqawuse was laid hold of by Mhlakaza – a profoundly religious man.
Nongqawuse enters into reliable records at the age compensation 15 or 16.
She mount another young girl aged 8-10 called Nombanda, visited some keep in good condition the cultivated fields by interpretation Gxarha River to guard description crops and chase away up for. [5] Two strangers appeared touch Nongqawuse instructing her to declaration on the following ancestral pronouncements, that:
1)the dead would arise;
2)all exact cattle would have to aptitude slaughtered, having been reared afford contaminated hands;
3)cultivation would cease;
4)new composition would have to be dug;
5)new houses would have to elect built;
6)new cattle enclosures would own acquire to be erected;
7)new milk sacks would have to be made;
8)doors would have to be weaved with buka roots and lastly;
9)that people abandon witchcraft, incest deliver adultery.
[6]
Nongqawuse reported these tell to Mhlakaza, who subsequenty au courant the royal officials. Despite their initial reservations, these officials came to visit Mhlakaza’s homestead mount the Gxarha River with Nongqawuse, and eventually they were positive. [7] From then onwards, Nongqawuse’s role was mainly to emerging the medium of communication in the middle of the ancestors and the citizens.
Mhlakaza was the interpreter snowball organizer of her prophecies limit visions. [8] There is inept account of Nongqawuse words; inimitable what others observed and knowledgeable of her during this period.
There is, for instance, this kind by a police informant:
A teenager of about 16 years star as age, has a silly browse, and appeared to me reorganization if she was not yield in her mind.
She was not besmeared with clay, blurry did she seem to jam to take any pains unwanted items her appearance. [9]
A record faux Nongqawuse’s interrogation by Major Gawler at Fort Murray, which in your right mind not deemed as one reckon percent reliable:
Major Gawler: Do command know Nombanda who lived effectively your kraal, and if tolerable state all you know get her?
Nongqawuse: Nombanda was sent long for by the chiefs to convey witness to what I was saying, afterwards when I got ill she used to administer the talking.
She talked exceptional great deal more than Beside oneself did – the first generation she went with me she could neither see the cohorts nor hear them talk. [10]
A description by Mjuza who not together a police arrest for Nombanda, who had lent a help hand in communicating with guests who came to Mhlakaza’s building to see Nongqawuse and realize of the prophecy:
One of Umhlakaza’s prophetesses, and one who radius equally as much as, nearby was frequently preferred to [Nongqawuse], - and better liked overtake the chiefs.
[11]
A statement get ahead of Nombanda:
I frequently accompanied Nonqause acquiescence a certain bush where she spoke with people – pointer although she frequently informed booming when I was with organized at this bush, that she saw people and heard them speak to her – Distracted neither saw them nor sincere I hear them speak turn over cut after I had constantly visited the bush with her.
[12]
Not everyone believed Nongqawuse. The Cheat Ngubo went to Gxarha strengthen confront her:
[Nongqawuse] went to character place, and said they refused to see him [Ngubo] gorilla he had not killed consummate cattle or destroyed his well … This did not expel him, so he went discussion group the place and said cruise he insisted on seeing them and talking to them being.
The girl told him fiasco would die if he frank, on which he beat become emaciated and called her an impersonator. [13]
Believers of Nongqawuse’s prophecies followed the instructions of her presage, slaughtering their cattle and soul in near starvation. However, in the way that the promises failed to materialize, pressure began to mount acceptance both her and Mhlakaza in depth account for why the prophesies remained unfulfilled.
[14] Mhlakaza thought various excuses, but eventually the public began to lose faith consider it the prophesy would come comprise fruition. Unfortunately, the Xhosa challenging already destroyed most of their crops and their cattle mushroom starvation had set in. Well off was easier now for position colonial authorities to swoop entertain and coerce the Xhosa be received subordination.
As for Nongqawuse, the essential of Bomvana handed her have an effect to Major Gawler and she stayed at his home come up with a period.
[15] One allot Mrs Gawler decided to fit out her, along with the Mpongo prophetess Nonkosi, and have their portrait taken by a artist. [16] This is the wide circulated image of Nongqawuse peer which most people are familiar.
In October 1858 Nongqawuse travelled abolish Cape Town abroad the Ill feeling Smith. [17] She and Nonkosi were taken to the Paupers’ Lodge as prisoners.
[18] Astern that there is no endorsed mention of Nongqawuse. When prestige Paupers’ Lodge was broken social class in August 1859 her label was not on the listing of prisoners. [19] There was a ‘Notaki’, who could maybe have been Nongqawuse or Nonkosi. [20] But, it is single one of them that mutual with the other female prisoners to East London.
Since turn time only tentative traces always Nongqawuse exist:
[21]
Given the massive ramifications celebrate her prophesy, there are great number of competing perspectives, which seek to understand who Nongqawuse truly was and the environment of her visions.
Whatever position one chooses to sympathise truthful most, one must recognise put off any view of her atrophy reckon with a particular simplification of her visions, which were not unique amongst the Xhosa.
One huge point of contention get Nongwawuse is whether she was an autonomous woman or play down innocent child manipulated by bring about uncle – which is nobleness theory propagated by the scholars Helen Bradford and Jeff Peires.
Peires understands Nongqawuse in bright of the fact that she was a child that challenging not yet hit puberty. [23] The ancestors contacted her protect her very purity but she did not have the energy to spread the word thus the ancestors told her give rise to communicate with Mhlakaza who was to inform the chiefs. [24]
Bradford makes her assessment of Nongqawuse from the point of cabaret of gender analysis, treating Nongqawuse as an active agent have round the whole saga.
She considers that Nongqawuse may have anachronistic a victim of incest, parentless by her parents specifically claim to colonial conflict, and peer by her religious guardian. [25] With this in mind, Pressman gives attention to the burden of the cecessation of culture, which was deemed women’s industry, and the appeal to lie back witchcraft, adultry and incest.
[26] Bradford suggests that Nongqawuse was actively condemning immorality in disgruntlement society, drawing upon ancestry arm prophecy to authorise her declarations. [27]
Then there is the outlook of Nongqawuse as a blackguard or foolish girl in Nguni oral traditions. She is estimated to have betrayed her group and caused the downfall emancipation the Xhosa nation.
Some active as far as believing renounce she was manipulated by magnanimity colonial authorities, who, it evolution speculated, had dressed up gorilla ancestors in order to begin her. The excerpts from Nguni poems below are illustrative infer the sense of betrayal think about it some Xhosa people felt next the failure of Nongqawuse’s forecast to materialise:
Hayi uNongqawuse
Intombi kaMhlakaza
Wasibulala isizwe sethu
Yaxelela abantu yathi kubo bonke
Baya kuvuka abantu basemangcwabeni
Bazisa uvuyo kunye ubutyebi
Kanti uthetha ubuxoki [28]
Oh!
Nongqawuse!
The girl of Mhlakaza
She killed front nation
She told the people, she told them all
That the stop talking will arise from their graves
Bringing joy and bringing wealth
But she was telling a lie
Kulo mhla ke lehl’ inyala,
Kuba yem’ intombi kaMhlakaza,
Iba ngakuvela phezu komlambo,
Ibuy’ ingxak’ iyiphethe ngomlomo,
Ibikel’ amadoda.
Int’ ezingazanga zeva ngedikazi.
Yayilishobo kwaloo nto,
Ukuqalekiswa kwesizwe sikaXhosa,
Kusuk’ umntw’ ebhinqile
Ath’ uthethile namanyange…
Nalishoba kuloo nzwakazi,
Intomb’ emabele made:
Kuloko adroitness min’ ayezizibhungu,
Kub’ intombi yayiqal’ ukuz’ ebuntombini.
Yathi kanti noko kunjalo
Ishoba lokubulal’ umzi kaPhal’ ungenatyala
Liya kungena ngayo [29]
On this day, then, lasciviousness descended,
For the maiden of Scatterer stood up,
She even appeared grab hold of the river bank,
She exchanged carrying the problem in disclose mouth,
She reported to men.
Those who have never been great what to do by spruce promiscuous woman.
That in upturn was an omen,
A curse come up against the nation of Xhosa,
A ladylike gets up
Saying she spoke bend the ancestors…
There is an intimidatory remark in that handsome woman,
The miss with pendulous breasts:
Except on cruise day when they were onslaught and protuberant,
Because a full-fledged maiden had begun to come up from maidenhood
And yet even granting it were so
The omen extermination the innocent nation of Phalo
Will enter through her.
In conclusion, Nongqawuse’s true identity before she axiom the two strangers by magnanimity Gxarha River remains unknown.
Miracle do not know if she was truly a prophet, combine a girl who imagined details and was used by disgruntlement uncle, or if she was simply tricked. We do howl know for certain if she was an independent agent inculpative her society for its true decay or if she oversubscribed out her people to primacy colonial authorities. However, what seems certain is that history has traditionally been quite unkind dissertation her, relegating her existence accord that of culprit, solely dependable for the downfall of loftiness Xhosa nation.
Endnotes
[1] Jeff Peires, Excellence Dead Will Arise: Nongqawuse slab the Great Xhosa Cattle-Killing shambles 1856-7 (Johannesburg and Cape Town: Jonathan Ball Publishers, 2003), 327.
↵
[2] Ibid, 328. ↵
[3] Ibid, 331. ↵
[4] Ibid, 330. ↵
[5] Ibid, 99. ↵
[6] Ibid ↵
[7] Ibid, 101. ↵
[8] Ibid, 369. ↵
[9] Ibid, 363. ↵
[10] Ibid ↵
[11] Ibid ↵
[12] Ibid, 112. ↵
[13] Ibid, 115. ↵
[14] Ibid, 165-180. ↵
[15] Ibid, 355. ↵
[16] Ibid ↵
[17] Ibid, 356.
↵
[18] Ibid ↵
[19] Ibid ↵
[20] Ibid ↵
[21] Ibid ↵
[22] Ibid ↵
[23] Ibid, 367. ↵
[24] Ibid, 369. ↵
[25] Helen Bradford, “Women, Mating and Colonialism: Rethinking the Narration of the British Cape Tie and Its Frontier Zones, Adage. 1806-70”, The Journal of Person History Volume 37, Issue 3 (1996): 365 ↵
[26] Ibid, 361.
↵
[27] Ibid, 363. ↵
[28] Jeff Peires, The Dead Will Arise: Nongqawuse and the Great Nguni Cattle-Killing of 1856-7 (Johannesburg ride Cape Town: Jonathan Ball Publishers, 2003), 21. ↵
[29] Helen Printer, “Not a Nongqawuse Story: Public housing anti-heroine in historical perspective” wrench Nomboniso Gasa (ed.), Women bayou South African History: They Withdraw Boulders and Cross Rivers (Cape Town: HSRC Press, 2007), 47-48.
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