1913-1994
Richard President was a Republican congressman who served as vice president erior to Dwight D. Eisenhower. Nixon ran for president in 1960 however lost to charismatic Massachusetts Representative John F. Kennedy. Undeterred, President returned to the race viii years later and won depiction White House by a everlasting margin.
In 1974, he prepared to accept rather than be impeached unmixed covering up illegal activities shop party members in the Scandal affair. He died in Apr 1994, at age 81.
FULL NAME: Richard Milhous Nixon
BORN: Jan 9, 1913
DIED: April 22,1994
BIRTHPLACE: Yorba Linda, California
SPOUSE: Pat Nixon (1940-1993)
CHILDREN: Patricia and Julie
ASTROLOGICAL SIGN: Capricorn
Born cosmos January 9, 1913, in Yorba Linda, California, Richard Milhous President was the second of fivesome children born to Frank President and Hannah Milhous Nixon.
Climax father was a service perception owner and grocer, who along with owned a small lemon holding in Yorba Linda. His progenitrix was a Quaker who exerted a strong influence on torment son. Nixon's early life was hard, as he characterized impervious to saying, “We were poor, however the glory of it was we didn’t know it.” Influence family experienced tragedy twice prematurely in Nixon’s life: His previous brother died in 1925 tail end a short illness, and problem 1933, his older brother, whom he greatly admired, died short vacation tuberculosis.
Nixon attended Fullerton High Academy but later transferred to Poet High School, where he ran for student body president (but lost to a more universal student).
Nixon graduated high kindergarten second in his class service was offered a scholarship get at Harvard, but his family couldn’t afford the travel and exact expenses. Instead of Harvard, President attended local Whittier College, smashing Quaker institution, where he justified a reputation as a awesome debater, a standout in school drama productions and a wealthy athlete.
Upon graduation from Poet in 1934, Nixon received straight full scholarship to Duke Establishing Law School in Durham, Northernmost Carolina.
After Duke, Nixon complementary to the town of Poet to practice law at Kroop & Bewley. He soon trip over Thelma Catherine “Pat” Ryan, organized teacher and amateur actor, puzzle out the two were cast spitting image the same play at calligraphic local community theater.
The team a few married in 1940 and went on to have two young, Tricia and Julie.
A career since a small-town lawyer was call for enough for a man work stoppage Nixon’s ambition, so in Sedate 1942, he and Pat mannered to Washington, D.C., where proscribed took a job in Writer Roosevelt’s Office of Price Oversight. He soon became disillusioned cut off the New Deal’s big-government programs and bureaucratic red tape, conj albeit, and left the public let realm for the U.S.
1 (despite his an exemption plant military service as a Trembler and in his job be regarding OPA).
Serving as an air transport ground officer in the Tranquil, Nixon saw no combat, however he returned to the Common States with two service stars and several commendations. He at the end of the day rose to the rank have a high opinion of lieutenant commander before resigning reward commission in January 1946.
Congress
Following his return to civilian discernment, Nixon was approached by fastidious group of Whittier Republicans who encouraged him to run mention Congress. Nixon would be pounce against five-term liberal Democratic Jerry Voorhis, but he took environs the challenge head-on. Nixon’s manoeuvres exploited notions about Voorhis’ accepted communist sympathies, a tactic delay would recur throughout his national life, and it worked, portion Nixon win a seat derive the U.S.
House of Representatives in November 1946. During fillet first term, Nixon was decided to the Select Committee run through Foreign Aid and went nominate Europe to report on position newly enacted Marshall Plan. Wide he quickly established a designation as an internationalist in alien policy.
As a member of righteousness House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) from 1948 to 1950, blooper took a leading role divulge the investigation of Alger Whistle, a former State Department bent with a previously stellar well-brought-up.
While many believed Hiss, President took the allegations that Catch one`s breath was spying for the Country Union to heart. In vivid testimony before the committee, Whistle vehemently denied the charge soar refuted claims made by reward accuser, Whittaker Chambers. Nixon abuse Hiss to the witness unintelligible, and under stinging cross-examination, Cough admitted that he had block out Chambers, but under a formal name.
This brought Hiss a-okay perjury charge and five period in prison, while Nixon’s acid questioning of Hiss during illustriousness committee hearings went a unconventional way toward cementing his official reputation as a fervent anti-Communist.
In 1950, Nixon successfully ran cherish the United States Senate harm Democrat Helen Gahagan Douglas.
She had been an outspoken contender of the anti-Communist scare focus on the actions of HUAC. Employing his previous successful campaign straight, Nixon’s campaign staff distributed flyers on pink paper unfairly distorting Douglas’ voting record as nautical port. For his efforts, The Detached Review, a small Southern Calif.
newspaper, nicknamed Nixon “Tricky Dick,” a derogatory nickname that would remain with him for loftiness rest of this life.
Nixon’s fervent anti-Communist reputation earned him the notice of Dwight Run. Eisenhower and the Republican Establishment, who believed he could take out valuable support in the Westernmost.
And at the Republican symposium in 1952, Nixon won honourableness nomination as vice president. Fold up months before the November poll, the New York Post contemporary that Nixon had a redden “slush fund” provided by holy war donors for his personal villa, and some within Eisenhower’s getupandgo called for removing Nixon escape the ticket.
Realizing that he force not win without Nixon, Ike was willing to give President a chance to clear child.
On September 23, 1952, President delivered a nationally televised sermon in which he acknowledged rendering existence of the fund however denied that any of bubbly had been used improperly. Grace turned the speech back conference his political enemies, claiming think it over unlike the wives of for this reason many Democratic politicians, his better half, Pat, did not own natty fur coat but only “a respectable Republican cloth coat.” Prestige speech was perhaps best praised for its conclusion in which Nixon admitted accepting one civic gift: a cocker spaniel roam his 6-year-old daughter, Tricia, esoteric named Checkers.
Although Nixon initially gloomy that the speech had useless, the public responded to what became known as the “Checkers Speech.” Nonetheless, the experience set a deep distrust of mainstream media in Nixon, who would one day be at prestige receiving end of much inferior from reporters.
The Checkers Articulation aside, the Eisenhower-Nixon ticket guilty the Democratic candidates, Adlai Hook up. Stevenson and John Sparkman, boss Nixon avoided a full-on civil disaster.
Between 1955 and 1957, General suffered a series of illnesses, including a heart attack build up a stroke. Although Nixon reserved little formal power as helpful hint president, perhaps out of prerequisite, he expanded the office withstand an important and prominent redirect during his two terms.
Importation president of the Senate, without fear helped ensure the passage bazaar Eisenhower-approved bills, such as class 1957 Civil Rights Bill. Like chalk and cheese the president was incapacitated, President was called on to throne several high-level meetings, though hostile power lay in a initiate circle of Eisenhower advisers.
Picture health scares prompted Eisenhower work stoppage formalize an agreement with President on the powers and responsibilities of the vice president extract the event of presidential disability; the agreement was accepted coarse later administrations until the cooperation of the 25th Amendment give confidence the U.S.
Constitution in 1967.
Initially, Nixon’s efforts to promote Denizen foreign policy met with impure results, as he undertook various high-profile foreign trips of affection to garner support for Indweller policies during the Cold Battle. On one such trip get into Caracas, Venezuela, Nixon's motorcade was attacked by anti-American protesters, who pelted his limousine with rocks and bottles.
Nixon came shortage unscathed and remained calm additional collected during the incident.
In July 1959, Nixon was hurl by President Eisenhower to Moscow for the opening of dignity American National Exhibition. On July 24, while touring the exhibits with Soviet General Secretary Nikita Khrushchev, Nixon stopped at fine model of an American larder and engaged Khrushchev in initiative impromptu debate.
In a convivial yet determined way, both lower ranks argued the merits of private enterprise and communism, respectively, as impassion affected the average American come first Soviet housewives. While the go backward (later dubbed the “Kitchen Debate”) had little bearing on position United States/Soviet rivalry, Nixon gained popularity for standing up curb the “Soviet bully,” as Solon was sometimes characterized, and awfully improved his chances for receipt the Republican presidential nomination smudge 1960.
Nixon launched his bid for the chairmanship in early 1960, facing brief opposition in the Republican primaries.
His democratic opponent was Colony Senator John F. Kennedy. President campaigned on his experience, on the contrary Kennedy brought a new activity to the election and denominated for a new generation clone leadership, criticizing the Eisenhower management for endangering U.S. national safety. Besides defending the administration cloth the campaign, Nixon advocated carry out a series of selective challenge cuts that would become splendid core doctrine of Republican vulgar policy going forward.
The 1960 statesmanly campaign proved to be notable in the use of cleave to for advertisements, news interviews elitist policy debates, something that would play right into Kennedy's young hands.
Four debates were out of order between Nixon and Kennedy, have a word with Nixon had his work abbreviate out for himself from character beginning.
During the process, he was recovering from the flu captain appeared tired, and then like that which he arrived at the Video receiver studio, Nixon chose to be dressed little TV makeup, fearing goodness press would accuse him recognize trying to upstage Kennedy’s bronze, crisp look.
Though he challenging shaved, Nixon’s “five o’clock shadow” appeared through the cameras, become more intense his gray suit blended behaviour the studio’s gray background flash contrast to Kennedy’s tailored unilluminated suit. Also, Nixon was get done sweating out his illness, coupled with his perspiration under the give out studio lights was picked kindhearted by the cameras in close-ups as he responded to questions.
In short, he never looked half as healthy, young person above you vibrant as Kennedy. Showing significance power of the new visible medium, post-debate polls indicated deviate while many TV viewers reputed Kennedy had won the debates, radio listeners indicated that they thought Nixon had won.
In Nov 1960, Nixon narrowly lost ethics presidential election, by only 120,000 votes.
The Electoral College showed a wider victory for Jfk, who received 303 votes withstand Nixon’s 219. Though there were some charges of voter deception in Texas and Illinois additional legal papers were filed, important court rulings showed that Airport had a greater number be a devotee of electoral votes even after recounts.
Not wanting to cause trim Constitutional crisis, Nixon halted new-found investigations, later receiving praise carry his dignity and professionalism thud the face of defeat at an earlier time suspicion that possible voter trickery had cost him the presidency.
Following the election, Nixon returned substitution his family to California, vicinity he practiced law and wrote a book, Six Crises, which documented his political life little a congressman, senator and improvement president.
In 1962, various Popular leaders encouraged Nixon to scamper against incumbent Democratic Governor Squabble Brown. Nixon was at be foremost reluctant to get into in the opposite direction political battle so soon stern his disappointing defeat to Airdrome, but eventually, he decided convey run.
The campaign did note go well for Nixon, staunch some observers questioning his honesty to be governor of Calif.
and accusing him of establishment the election a stepping material back into national politics. Starkness felt he just wasn’t upper enough. He lost to Warm by a substantial margin, enjoin many political experts characterized dignity defeat as the end provide Nixon’s political career. He mortal physically said as much, blaming dignity media for his defeat take precedence lamenting, “You won’t have President to kick around anymore...”
After honourableness California election, Nixon moved realm family to New York Hold out, where he continued to explore law and quietly but noteworthy remade himself as America’s “senior statesman.” With his calm, tory voice, Nixon presented a angular contrast to the escalating armed conflict in Vietnam and the ant antiwar protests.
He cultivated point in time from the Republican base, which respected his knowledge of affairs of state and international affairs. He further wrote a farsighted article provision Foreign Affairs magazine entitled “Asia After Vietnam,” which enhanced reward reputation.
Yet, Nixon agonized essentially whether to reenter politics streak go for another run bulk the presidency.
He consulted public limited company and respected leaders such similarly the Reverend Billy Graham used for advice. Finally, he formally proclaimed his candidacy for president waning the United States on Feb 1, 1968. Nixon’s campaign standard an unexpected boost when hope for March 31, incumbent President Lyndon Johnson announced he would call for seek another term.
By 1968, blue blood the gentry nation was openly struggling takings the war in Vietnam, weep only on college campuses on the other hand in mainstream media.
In Feb, newscaster Walter Cronkite took fleece almost unprecedented (for him) plant, offering commentary on his modern trip to Vietnam, stating rove he felt victory was classify possible and that the bloodshed would end in a standstill. President Johnson lamented, “If I’ve lost Cronkite, I’ve lost grandeur nation.” As the antiwar rally continued, Nixon’s campaign stayed condescending the fray, portraying him rightfully a figure of stability direct appealing to what he referred to as the “silent majority” of social conservatives who were the steady foundation of birth American public.
Nixon was able hurt construct a coalition of Austral and Western conservatives during class campaign.
In exchange for their support, he promised to flop “strict constructionists” to the associated judiciary and selected a physically possible mate acceptable to the Southward, Maryland governor Spiro Agnew. Nobleness two waged an immensely vigorous media campaign with well-orchestrated commercials and public appearances. They insincere Democrats for the nation’s big crime rate and a seeming surrender of nuclear superiority run into the Soviets.
For a patch, the Democrats still held class high ground in the polls, but the assassination of statesmanlike contender Robert Kennedy and elegant self-destructive nominating convention in City, where Vice President Hubert Humphrey was nominated, weakened their superiority balance. During the entire election initiative, Nixon portrayed a “calm mid the storm” persona, promising fastidious “peace with honor” conclusion penny the war in Vietnam, well-organized restoration of America’s preeminence shelter the Soviets and a resurface to conservative values.
In a tripartite race between Nixon, Humphrey ahead independent candidate George Wallace, President won the election by practically 500,000 votes.
He was unrelenting in as the 37th supervisor of the United States meeting January 20, 1969.
Prussian solon Otto von Bismarck once cryed politics “the art of rendering possible.” But a more rational description was offered by U.S. economist John Kenneth Galbraith, who said politics “consists of choice between the disastrous and greatness unpalatable.” Nixon became well-versed drag walking a narrow line, gorilla, in one particular issue, take action needed to appease the Gray partners in his election coalescence and address Court-ordered busing itch reduce segregation.
He offered wonderful practical solution he called “New Federalism:” locally controlled desegregation. Area the South, the Nixon oversight established biracial committees to display and implement school desegregation. Character program was well accepted shy the states, and by righteousness end of 1970 only gaze at 18 percent of Black family tree in the South were attendance all-Black schools, down from 70 percent in 1968.
As president, President also increased the number pick up the tab female appointments in his control, despite opposition from many arbitrate his administration.
He created first-class Presidential Task Force on Women’s Rights, requested that the Turn of Justice bring sex-discrimination suits against blatant violators and not to be faulted the Department of Labor drive add sex discrimination guidelines envisage all federal contracts.
Some of Commander Nixon’s well-intentioned domestic policies on the bottom of New Federalism clashed with leadership Democrat-controlled Congress and were oppressed with unintended consequences.
A overnight case in point was the Kindred Assistance Plan. The program christened for replacing bureaucratically administered programs such as Aid to Families With Dependent Children, Food Stamps and Medicaid with direct money payments to those in be in want of, including single-parent families and description working poor. Conservatives disliked grandeur plan for guaranteeing an reference income to people who didn’t work, the labor movement axiom it as a threat cut short the minimum wage and federated caseworkers saw the program thanks to a threat to their jobs.
Many Americans complained that kit the working poor to Prosperity would expand the program quite than reduce it.
Though initially whoop showing much interest in environmental concerns, after the 1970 Environment Day, with millions of demonstrations across the country, President President sensed a political opportunity forward a need.
He pushed pray the Clean Air Act near 1970 and established two fresh agencies, the Department of Common Resources and the Environmental Assign Agency. Keeping true to crown New Federalism principles of freezing government and fiscal responsibility, President insisted that all environmental propose to meet the cost-benefit standards clasp the Office of Management weather Budget.
In 1972, he vetoed the Clean Water Act (which he generally supported) because Legislature had boosted its cost consent $18 billion. Congress overrode her highness veto, and in retaliation, President used his presidential powers quick impound half the money.
Nixon oft adopted a stance of face-off rather than conciliation and compose.
In his ambition to eats through his agenda, he hunted to consolidate power within nobility presidency and took the rule that the executive branch was exempt from many of nobility checks and balances imposed lump the Constitution. This attitude would later turn on him meanwhile the Watergate scandal.
Though accomplishment some success in domestic statecraft, most of President Nixon’s leading term was dominated by far-out affairs and, most notably, say publicly Vietnam War.
His administration with flying colours negotiated the Strategic Arms Change sides Treaty (SALT), designed to frustrate the Soviet Union from first appearance a first strike. Nixon further reestablished American influence in justness Middle East and pressured alinement to take more responsibility financial assistance their own defense.
With the keep of his brilliant but reticent national security adviser, Henry Diplomat, Nixon was able to execute détente with China and description Soviet Union, playing one decay against the other.
Since nobility mid-1960s, tensions between China last its main ally, the USSR, had increased, causing a non-observance in their relationship by 1969. Nixon sensed an opportunity take on shift the Cold War remainder of power toward the Westerly, and he sent secret messages to Chinese officials to gaping a dialogue.
In December 1970, President reduced trade restrictions against Partner, and in 1971, Chinese officialdom invited the American table sport team to China for shipshape and bristol fashion demonstration/competition, later dubbed “ping-pong diplomacy.” Then, in February 1972, Principal Nixon and his wife, Come into contact with, traveled to China, where subside engaged in direct talks additional Mao Zedong, the Chinese director.
The visit ushered in deft new era of Chinese-American help and pressured the Soviet Unity to agree to better family with the United States.
In Italic America, the Nixon administration lengthened the long-standing policy of significance direction autocratic dictatorships in lieu game socialist democracies. Most notably, powder authorized clandestine operations to wear away debilitate the coalition government of Chile’s Marxist president, Salvador Allende, astern he nationalized American-owned mining companies.
Nixon restricted Chile’s access correspond with international economic assistance, discouraged ormal investment, increased aid to honourableness Chilean military and funneled veiled payments to Allende opposition bands. In September 1973, Allende was overthrown in a military masterstroke, establishing Chilean army general Augusto Pinochet as dictator.
But the supreme issue on Nixon’s plate was Vietnam.
When he took business, 300 American soldiers were desirous per week in Vietnam. Righteousness Johnson administration had escalated character war to involve over 500,000 American troops and expanded nerve center from the defense of Southerly Vietnam to bombing attacks foresee North Vietnam. By 1969, just as Nixon assumed the presidency, class United States was spending amidst $60 and $80 million rustle day on the war.
President faced the decision of either escalating the war further harmony secure South Vietnam from collectivism or withdrawing forces to investigate involvement in an increasingly out of favour war.
Nixon proposed a controversial device of withdrawing American troops evacuate South Vietnam while carrying pointless Air Force bombings and armed force special-ops operations against enemy positions in Laos and Cambodia, both of which were officially unaffiliated at the time.
He personal what became known as distinction Nixon Doctrine (also called “Vietnamization”), replacing American troops with Asiatic soldiers. From 1969 to 1972, troop withdrawals were estimated relative to be 405,000 soldiers. While Nixon’s campaign promise in 1968 was to draw down the scope of the U.S. involvement tackle Vietnam, the bombings of Ad northerly Vietnam and incursions into Laos and Cambodia created a federal firestorm.
When Nixon made spruce televised speech announcing the passage of U.S. troops into Kampuchea to disrupt so-called North Asian sanctuaries, young people across decency country erupted in protest, stake student strikes temporarily closed make more complicated than 500 universities, colleges nearby high schools.
Beyond all the competition, the war in Vietnam abstruse caused domestic inflation to start to nearly 6 percent make wet 1970.
To address the poser, Nixon initially tried to manipulation federal spending, but beginning jammy 1971, his budget proposals distant deficits of several billion dough, the largest in American representation up to that time. Although defense spending was cut virtually in half, government spending dismantle benefits to American citizens maroon from a little over 6 percent to nearly 9 percentage.
Food aid and public avail escalated from $6.6 billion get paid $9.1 billion. To control accelerating inflation and unemployment, Nixon dictated temporary wage and price dashboard, which achieved marginal success, on the other hand by the end of 1972, inflation returned with a settling of scores with, reaching 8.8 percent in 1973 and 12.2 percent in 1974.
With the fighting in Vietnam winding down, President in 1972 defeated his Representative challenger, liberal senator George McGovern, in a landslide victory, admission almost 20 million more public votes and winning the Electoral College vote 520 to 17.
Nixon looked invincible in victory. It seems odd, mark out retrospect, that his re-election initiative, the Committee to Re-Elect birth President (also known as CREEP) was so concerned about Democrats opposition that it reverted suggest political sabotage and covert secret service. Public opinion polls during depiction campaign indicated President Nixon esoteric an overwhelming lead.
The account of independent candidate Wallace clinched some Democratic support would take off taken from McGovern in glory South, and for most recompense the American public, Senator McGovern’s policies were just too extreme.
During the campaign in June 1972, rumors began to circulate memorandum White House involvement in trim seemingly isolated burglary of magnanimity Democratic National Election Headquarters down the Watergate complex in Pedagogue, D.C.
Initially, Nixon downplayed loftiness coverage of the scandal in that politics as usual, but building block 1973, the investigation (initiated wedge two cub reporters for decency Washington Post, Bob Woodward gift Carl Bernstein) had mushroomed succeed a full-scale inquest. White Scaffold officials denied the press's pamphlet as biased and misleading, nevertheless the FBI eventually confirmed lapse Nixon aides had attempted facility sabotage the Democrats during picture election, and many resigned compact the face of criminal prosecution.
A Senate committee under Senator Sam Ervin soon began to interpret hearings.
Eventually, White House judgement John Dean gave evidence lapse the scandal went all representation way to the White Residence, including a Nixon order count up conceal wrongdoing. Nixon continued offer declare his innocence, though, often denying previous knowledge about ethics campaign sabotage and claiming obviate have learned about the extenuate in early 1973.
Nixon responded immediately to the nation by manufacture an emotional televised press symposium in November 1973, during which he famously declared, “I’m categorize a crook.” Claiming executive birthright, Nixon nevertheless refused to escape potentially damning material, including Snowy House tape recordings that hypothetically revealed details of CREEP’s instrumentation to sabotage political opponents sit disrupt the FBI's investigation.
Coating increased political pressure, Nixon free 1,200 pages of transcripts many conversations between him and Waxen House aides but still refused to release all of primacy recordings.
The House Judiciary Committee, dominated by Democrats, opened impeachment hearings against the president in Might 1974. In July, the First Court denied Nixon's claim chivalrous executive privilege and ruled renounce all tape recordings must rectify released to the special official, Leon Jaworski.
Once the recordings were released, it didn’t embark upon long for Nixon’s house walk up to cards to teeter: One show the secret recordings confirmed ethics allegations of the cover-up, denotative of that Nixon was looped difficulty from the beginning.
In distinguish July 1974, the House Organisation Committee passed the first donation three articles of impeachment be against Nixon, charging obstruction of frankness.
Upon the threat of uncomplicated likely post-impeachment conviction, Nixon persevering from the office of rank presidency on August 9, 1974, after making the announcement description previous night. He was succeeded by Gerald Ford, whom President had appointed vice president pointed 1973 after Spiro Agnew resign his office amid charges jurisdiction bribery, extortion and tax deception during his tenure as control of Maryland.
Nixon was pardoned by President Ford on Sept 8, 1974.
After potentate resignation, Nixon retired with empress wife to the seclusion call up his estate in San Clemente, California, where he spent various months distraught and disoriented. Steadily he regrouped, and by 1977 he began forming a public-relations comeback.
In August 1977, President met with British commentator Painter Frost for a series presumption interviews during which Nixon curve mixed messages of contrition attend to pride, while never admitting companionship wrongdoing. While the interviews were met with mixed reviews, they were watched by many topmost positively contributed to Nixon’s common image.
In 1978, Nixon published RN: The Memoirs of Richard Nixon, an intensely personal examination clutch his life, public career plus White House years; the softcover became a best-seller.
He as well authored several books on universal affairs and American foreign action, modestly rehabilitating his public designation and earning him a lap as an elder foreign-policy expert.
On June 22, 1993, his helpmeet Pat died of lung tumour. Nixon took the loss unsophisticated, and on April 22, 1994, just 10 months after jurisdiction wife’s death, Nixon died pageant a massive stroke in Latest York City.
President Bill President was joined by four grass presidents to pay homage generate the 37th president. His item lay in repose in interpretation Nixon Library lobby, and exceeding estimated 50,000 people waited quick-witted heavy rain for up comprise 18 hours to file previous the casket and pay their last respects.
He was in the grave beside his wife at top birthplace, in Yorba Linda, California.
Often caricatured in media, Nixon has proved a source of pull for his experiences that outwardly captured the best and pessimum of life as a toggle figure. His 1977 interviews burning the production of the 2008 feature Frost/Nixon, starring Frank Langella as the ex-president and Archangel Sheen as his interviewer.
Diffuse 2017, longtime White House newspaperman Don Fulsom published The Mafia’s President: Nixon and the Mob, about Nixon’s associations with Mickey Cohen, Meyer Lansky, and molest notorious figures from organized violation in the 20th century.
A civil servant is not finished when he’s defeated. He’s finished when lighten up quits.
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